AWA: Academic Writing at Auckland

The coastal marine environment is valued in a variety of ways by a wide range of users. Due to its location at the border between the marine and terrestrial worlds, it is used for anything from commercial and recreational fishing to tourism. In addition it is also valued and enjoyed by local communities, and seen as important by local tribes. Local tribes are generally seen to value the marine environment for its spiritual value. For the New Zealand Maori it has historical and cultural significance. Similarly, it has an important spiritual value for those living in and around the coast. It is part of their identity, and something they feel they have the right to use and protect. On the other hand, commercial fisheries and even the ecotourism industry may view the marine environment as a commodity. Though they aim to protect it, the primary motivation is to extract the maximum economic value while ensuring that they can continue to exploit it in the future. Therefore conservation of certain species is not always a priority.

Coastal managers tend to be caught between ensuring the values of all stakeholders are adhered to, and that economic gain is balanced by environmental concern. This complex task is made still more difficult by conflict between groups (Griggs, 1991). Unfortunately as a result of needing to balance different viewpoints, groups can sometimes feel that their opinions are not acknowledged. This is especially the case with recreational fishermen. Possessing less economic and political power than other stakeholders, they can often feel that they are under-represented in the management process. This idea is corroborated by Peart (2008) who revealed that regimes such as those for environmental protection or broad scale resource management fail to consider the needs of amateur fishers. Conversely, Peart also notes that in spite of their greater economic influence, commercial fisheries can also feel threatened by recreational fishermen. This is due to the perceived lack of regulations and low level of monitoring which this group is seen to be subject to (2008). Jealousies between groups can hinder policy making and make it difficult for all stakeholders to feel they are fairly treated. In addition commercial fisheries can often feel that they are being demonised by other groups. In trying to appease all stakeholders, coastal managers have sometimes unintentionally exacerbated issues. This is particularly true in the case of the Individual Transferrable Quota (ITQ) introduced in 1986.

The ITQ was established to manage New Zealand’s recreational and commercial fisheries in order to mitigate overfishing in New Zealand. This was achieved by limiting how much fishermen were able to catch. Fishermen were each given a percentage of the total allowable catch. This percentage could then be used or sold to larger fishing companies to add to their quota. To some extent this management scheme encouraged fairness in that recreational or smaller-scale fishermen were compensated for the taking of their fish. While this did take into account environmental and economic concerns, it did not truly consider the social impacts involved. Before the introduction of the ITQ local communities often relied on fishing as a source of food and employment. The buying-out of smaller local fisheries has therefore been harmful to these communities (Duncan, 2011). This highlights the need for greater consideration of social rights in the management process. It also represents a need to take into account the ability of all stakeholders to voice concerns and to increase this where necessary.

As well as contending with internal conflict, commercial – and to a lesser extent recreational – fisheries can conflict with the ecotourism industry. Ecotourism in the Hauraki Gulf is mostly centred on whale and dolphin watching experiences. Through overfishing, commercial fishing has the ability to damage the ecosystems in which these whales and dolphins live. Additionally, fisheries have the potential to injure or kill dolphins if certain fishing techniques are used. Whether deliberate or accidental, this poses a threat to ecotourism and the values around which it is based. Harrison (1977) defines the premise of ecotourism as being “to foster environmental conservation and cultural understanding” (as cited by Dowling, 2001). On the other hand, commercial fisheries are viewed as desiring the exploitation of nature for economic gain. They are not thought to have any concern for environmental cost (Peart, 2008). Similarly, through their attempts to preserve marine life for the purposes of ecotourism, the tourism industry can impinge on the rights of fisheries. This is because they are likely to encourage the establishment of marine reserves. Such places can forbid fishing in a particular area over a period of years. Although marine reserves, when successful, are known to increase fish stocks, this can take a considerable amount of time. Whereas ecotourism is positively affected in having access to a more productive marine environment, fishers are excluded.

A third major group of stakeholders are iwi and local communities. As mentioned above, local communities have a direct economic interest in the Hauraki Gulf. It brings in money from fishing and tourism allowing the area to continue to function. Fisheries, to a certain extent, can create jobs for members of the local community. This allows for its continued function. Despite this, it should be noted that the majority of profits are directed overseas. Money largely goes to shareholders and most fish is exported and sold overseas. Similarly, only a limited amount of the money gained from ecotourism helps to improve revenue in the surrounding area. This is because although it entices tourists to places in and around the Hauraki Gulf, the majority of the money earned will be kept as profit for the company. As a result, it is debatable to what extent economic gains received by local communities should outweigh environmental cost (Coventry, 1993 as cited in Dowling, 2001) Under the Treaty of Waitangi, local iwi also have rights to the resources of the Hauraki Gulf. This means that it has value to them monetarily as well as spiritually. Equally important is that local iwi argue that they never gave up ownership of parts of the Hauraki Gulf (Cassels-Brown, 1997). If this is found to be the case then councils have a legal responsibility to consider their views as stakeholders.

On the other hand, the spiritual importance of the Hauraki Gulf to iwi and local communities should not be discounted. Tangata Whenua have resided in the Hauraki Gulf for many generations, creating a more long-term connection with it than other groups. The surrounding area has also provided a home to various coastal communities. For many years both have cared for and protected the Gulf in their own ways. They possess a historical knowledge of the Hauraki Gulf which is unique, and therefore can be of invaluable aid in its management. Compared to other stakeholders their values are also likely to be more evenly based between economic and environmental values. To them it represents an integral part of their identity and survival. The spiritual importance of the Hauraki Gulf for these groups can sometimes lead to a conflict of values with other stakeholders.

While both the ecotourism and fisheries industries try in some way to mitigate the impacts on the environment, both groups can still be harmful to marine life. It has long been acknowledged that intensive fishing can have considerable impacts on the marine environment. It has also been noted that the rate at which fisheries extract fish from the ocean, though economically sustainable, may not create maximum social or environmental value (Campbell & Tsamenyi, 1997). Ironically, research also indicates that ‘ecotourism’ may have equally devastating impacts on marine life. Just one example of this is a study conducted by Stockin, Lusseau, Binedell, Wiseman and Orams (2008) which focused on the impacts of ecotourism on dolphin behaviour. The paper revealed that the “foraging and resting bouts of dolphins were significantly disrupted by boat interactions” (Stockin et al, 2008). In addition, many of the species observed through ecotourism companies are known to be endangered (Orams, 2004). As a result such activities could severely impact on the health of the Hauraki Gulf.

Due to the complex nature of management in the Hauraki Gulf, it is crucial that a solution is found that better incorporates the ideas of all stakeholders. Doing so would set an example for coastal management in the future, and may even help to solve issues on land. By understanding the ways in which different stakeholders value and interact with each other and the environment, it is possible to create a more sustainable future. However, currently not all stakeholders are being given an equal say. Local communities are often drowned out by economic interests. Fragmented management also causes conflict and lack of communication between stakeholders within and between various industries. As a result, issues on which stakeholders might be able to agree are unable to be resolved. To be more successful management in the Hauraki Gulf needs to become more cohesive and flexible to ensure that every voice is heard, and all interests are accounted for as far as is possible.

Reference List

Campbell, H., Tsamenyi, B. (1997) Fishery Management, Environmental Protection and Trade Liberalization. International Journal of Social Economics. 24(1/2/3), 129-138.

Dowling, R. (2001) Oceania. In Weaver, D (Ed.) The Encyclopaedia of Ecotourism. (pp.149-154). New York: CABI Publishing Series.

Duncan, L (2011) The Social Implications of Rights-Based Fisheries Management in New Zealand for Some Hauraki Gulf Fishermen and their Communities. (Unpublished PhD Thesis). University of Waikato, Hamilton.

Griggs, J (1991) Developing Co-Operative Management Systems for Common Property Resources: Resolving cross-cultural conflict in a west coast fishery. University of British Colombia, Colombia.

Orams, M. (2004) Dolphins, Whales and Ecotourism in New Zealand: What are the impacts and how should they be managed? In Hall, C. & Boyd, S. (Eds.)  Nature-Based Tourism in Peripheral Areas: Development or disaster (pp.231-240). Toronto: Channel View Publications.

Pacific Coasts and Ports ’97: Proceedings of the 13^th Annual Australasian Coastal and Ocean Engineering Conference and the 6^th Annual Australasian Port and Harbour Conference. (1997). Vision Hauraki Gulf: A multi-agency approach to integrated coastal management. Christchurch: University of Canterbury.

Peart, R. (2008) Integrating the Management of New Zealand’s Coast: Challenges and prospects. Proceedings of the Conserv-Vision Conference. (pp. 1-17). Hamilton, New Zealand: University of Waikato. 

Stockin, K., Lusseau, D., Binedell, V., Wiseman, N., Orams, M. (2008). Tourism Affects the Behavioural Budget of the Common Dolphin Delphinus sp. in the Hauraki Gulf, New Zealand. Marine Ecology Progress Series. 335, 287-295.