AWA: Academic Writing at Auckland

Hockey and football are both popular sports, played universally and have evolved since their beginnings. Association football is the world’s most popular team sport (Atkinson & Watters, 2016) and in 2006 there were 265 million players worldwide (Kunz, 2007). Field hockey is second in terms of worldwide popularity and is predominant in Europe and Asia (Zimmerman, 2005). Both sports require immense amounts of skill and are physically demanding because players face extreme fatigue and their decision making skills are tested at each point in the game. This essay discusses the background and summarizes the rules. It will then explain the physical and mental training, nutritional aspects, and injuries involved. Major events and issues concerning both sports are outlined.

Sport one: Field Hockey

History, evolution and technological impact

Field hockey was introduced 4000 years ago in Egypt and Ethiopia around 1000 BC (International Hockey federation, n.d.). Similar versions existed, in Rome it was known as Paganica, in Mongolia the Daur people played Beikou and in Ireland it was known as hurling (Hockey history, n.d.). Hockey evolved in England during the 18th century where it was played in public schools. The game was further developed by the Teddington Cricket club. In 1875 the Hockey association was formed in England which established a set of rules (Hockey Australia, 2008). Hockey’s popularity increased when British woman Constance Applebee introduced the sport to the U.S. in 1901 and in the1908 summer Olympics Hockey was played competitively level for men (Isport, n.d.).

A significant technological impact would be the synthetic revolution in the 1970s. Field hockey was originally played on grass, however during the 1970s artificial playing surface was introduced. The artificial pitch was originally composed of polyamide/nylon material and this changed the games pace, introduced new skills e.g. the Indian dribble. The efficiency and control provided by the artificial turf was the deciding factor in using it at the 1976 Montreal Olympics and now all international hockey competitions must be played on artificial turf as required by the International Hockey federation (Taha, Hassan, Majeed, Aris and Sahim, 2013).

Rules, regulations and objectives

The main objective is to take the ball to the attacking circle where players attempt to score in the opposing team's goal. (Rules of sport, n.d.). The latest rules established by the International Hockey federation are, each team consists of 11 players and one goalkeeper. The duration of each match is 35 minutes, along with a 5minute interval. Players must wear their team uniforms and are prohibited to wear anything which may be injurious to others. If there are no goals scored or each team has the same amount the game is a draw. Throughout the game players are expected to conduct themselves in a responsible manner, one crucial rule is not to lift their sticks above their heads or the heads of other players. (Rules of hockey, 2014).

Physical and/or mental training, nutrition and risks/injuries

Physical training is quintessential in field hockey and speed endurance is the main motor skill required (Strzelczyk, Konarski, Karpowicz, & Janowski,2001), it is to be maintained despite fatigue. Speed endurance is developed through aerobic training (Reilly & Borrie 1992). Aerobic training involves short distance exercises with a higher intensity.” Cheetham and Williams (1987) found an increase of 2.1 nil/kg/min in V02 max following a 6- week programme of 2 fast runs (5 to 9km) and 2 interval sessions (30 to 300m) per week” (Reilly & Borrie 1992, p.22). Before seasons begin conditioning and strength training are focused on. Practice and training sessions implement and improve skills such as speed, endurance and flexibility (Australian sports commission, n.d.). As an athlete progresses to elite field hockey the mental training evolves.

Fundamental techniques include confidence building, identifying strength and weaknesses.

Imagery is visualizing tasks without completing them and aids in building confidence and improving skills being learnt. Other techniques used are short and long term goal setting, positive self-talk and relaxation which includes progressive muscle relaxation techniques deep breathing and ratio breathing. Ultimately these techniques improve mind set and performance (Field hockey Canada, 2016).
Endurance is needed because in a game players cover 8 km on average and this is spent running backwards, walking, jogging, all of which requires endurance (Anders & Myers, 2008). In particular, muscular endurance is required in order to maintain peak performance throughout a match (Sports fitness advisor, n.d.). Developing muscle strength is important for performance and injury prevention. Basic strength is needed to hit, tackle and transport the ball and strength of specific muscles such as the hamstring, quads, glutes and hips due players being in a crouched position (Hard core hockey, n.d.).

Good nutrition impacts on performance and players are reliant on fuel from muscles during play. Carbohydrates are the main energy source and sufficient levels must be maintained to avoid fatigue. 5-8 grams of carbohydrates per kg of body weight is recommended. Protein is essential for recovery and can be derived from meat and vegetables. 1.4-1.7 grams of protein per kg of body weight is recommended. Fats also provide energy but it is critical to avoid excessive amounts and unhealthy sources. 0.45 grams of fat per kg of body weight is recommended (Darien field hockey association, n.d.). Hydration prevents dehydration and its debilitating effects. “A fluid loss of 2% body weight can impair performance by up to 20%” (Hockey New Zealand, n.d, p.7).

Common injuries are divided into two groups. External injuries make up the majority of injuries include hits or strikes to the body by the equipment used. Internal injuries are sprains, strains and caused by internal factors that put stress on the muscles, tendons and ligaments (Orooj, Nuhmani, Muaidi, 2016). Due to the nature of the game players are in a position where they have to crouch down which causes significant back pain. “A study done by Reilly and Seaton revealed that 53% of field players have experienced back pain at some time” (Orooj et al., 2016, para. 22). Shin splints are common amongst players, it caused by extreme flat footedness and tension in the back leg muscles “A study in USA found 39% female college field hockey players suffered from sport related lower leg pain” (Orooj et al.,2016, para.40).

Major events and issues

International sporting events in field hockey include the Olympics and the World hockey cup. federation (Times of India 2056). Other major events include the champions trophy which began in Pakistan 1978. The women's champions trophy began in 1987 in the Netherlands (Hockey Australia, n.d.). Field hockey is in the Commonwealth games, it was first introduced at the 1998 commonwealth games (Evening times, n.d.). A controversy was in the 1972 Olympics where Germany had won. The Pakistan team did not conduct themselves properly. Pakistani players turned their backs to the German flag during the German national anthem and wore their silver medals around their feet. The president of the International hockey federation was doused with water by fans and players (Hicken, 2012). These actions resulted in a life ban for Pakistan, however it was reduced to two years after an apology from Pakistan’s officials(Ahmed,2012).

Sport two: Association football

History, evolution and technological impact

Association football is more commonly known as football or soccer, the term is used to differentiate other forms of the game such as gridiron, Aussie rules and Gaelic football (stuff about football, n.d.). The earliest version of the game was originated in China and was known as Tsu Chu other versions include Kemari from Japan and Episkyros from Greece (Fifa, n.d.). Football then evolved during the 18th century in England where schoolteachers set up clubs for their own fitness or their pupils. Sunderland A.F.C for example was founded in 1879 by school teacher James Allan (Early action: founding and furthering clubs 2008).

Rules, regulations and objectives

The main objective of the game is to transport the ball through the field into the opposing team's goal. Goals can also be awarded through direct kicks, corner kicks and penalty kicks (Sure fire soccer, n.d.). A summary of the current rules according to International football association board is that each team must have 11 players. All forms of jewellery are prohibited during game time. A goal must be passed through the goal line, beneath the crossbar and goal posts. If the same number of goals are scored by each team, it’s a draw. (Laws of the game 2016/2017).

Physical and/or mental training, nutrition and risks/injuries

Preseason training involves conditioning and strength training (Australian sports commission, n.d.). Football is dependent on the aerobic and anaerobic systems. These systems are required due to the irregular nature of the game as high intensity activity may be required in some parts more than others. “98% of the total energy is derived from aerobic metabolism, with the remaining 2% generated from anaerobic processes” (Hoff & Helgerud,2004, p.168). Running and training drills are used to train aerobic and anaerobic systems (Morgans, Orme, Anderson, & Drust, 2014). Skills and training matches are practiced and mirror situations faced in the game (Morgans et al., 2014).

Psychological skills training (PST) is used to enhance performance. The main techniques are self-confidence this is achieved through noting down positive statements regarding one self and accomplishments, which are repeated on a regular basis (MD sports, n.d.). Goal setting aims to achieve specific behavioural targets and according to “Kyllo and Landers (1995) examined 36 studies and found that goal setting have a substantial influence on performance” (Freitas, Dias, & Fonseca, 2013, p.57). Self-talk is verbal statements addressed to yourself and is designed to be motivating and instructing. Imagery is visualizing skills without completing them and incorporates all five senses. Its improves focus and relaxation. (Pyschology and soccer performance, n.d.).

Endurance is needed because during a game an average distance of 11 km is covered by players. This involves walking, running, jumping and changing direction. High intensity of these activities require aerobic capacity (Murphy, Reilly& Spinks 2002) and short and long endurance (Sports fitness advisor, n.d.) to ensure players can performance efficiently and withstand the match without being overly fatigued. Lower and upper body strength is required in football for kicking, jumping, throw ins and twisting (Lee, 2008). Maximal strength increases speed of kicking performance (Murphy, Reilly& Spinks 2002) and high levels can decrease injuries by “increasing the cross-section area of muscles and strength and mobility of tendon and ligaments” (Wisloeff, Helgerud, J., & Hoff, 1998).

Good nutrition influences performance and carbohydrates are an essential energy source. High consumption after training accelerates the recovery of glycogen stores in muscles(F-MARC,2010). Protein creates new tissues and fixes damaged tissue. It aids in creating hormones and enzymes which regulate metabolism and bodily functions(F-MARC,2010). “There is compelling evidence that intakes in excess of about 1.7 g/kg/d will not help build and repair muscles” (Maughan & Shirreffs 2007, p.278). Some players lose around 3-5% in fluids through sweating and players must hydrate themselves to ensure fluid loss doesn’t decrease below 2% of body weight (Maughan & Shirreffs,2007).
Common injuries in football involve ankle and foot sprains. Due to the frenzied nature of the game, foot and ankle injuries occur when striking the ball, and may result from objects such as sprinkler heads on the turf. Muscle strains also occur as resulting of running and rapid movements (Mcmaster and Walter, 1978).” Knee injuries account for 25% of leg injuries” (Russell, 2016), injuring or straining the anterior lucraite ligament is a severe knee injury and is attributed to the landing after a jump and pivoting. Other injuries include head injuries which account for 4-22% for injuries and caused by contact with other players, goal posts and the ball (Russell, 2016).

Major events and issues

International sporting events in football include the Olympics, football has been featured officially in the since 1908 (Rainbow, 2012). Other tournaments governed by FIFA are the FIFA world cup beginning in 1930 and occurring every four years (Fifa, n.d.). Women's world cup began in China in 1991 and occurs every four years (Karnik, n.d.). Other events include the confederations cup and the under 20 men and women’s world cup. Numerous controversies involving football have arisen, however the more recent and significant is the 2015 FIFA corruption scandal where 14 officials had been charged for accepting bribes amounting to £65million over 30 years (Gayle & Gibson, 2015).

I would combine sport and exercise science with my major in property through creating a volunteering project. This project would be a monthly day of volunteering where employees from property firms would go to low decile schools or engage with at risk kids. Equipment would be provided and employees can teach children how to play soccer and hockey. This would enable children to learn how to work effectively in a team, build their motivation and improve their physical fitness.

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