AWA: Academic Writing at Auckland

Background

Given the rapid expansion of the Internet and its continual increase in availability, numerous studies have reported that an increasing number of people use the Internet compulsively (Meerkerk, Van Den Eijnden, & Garretsen, 2006). This damaging and uncontrollable compulsive Internet use, also referred to as Problematic Internet Use (PIU), can have serious consequences with regard to professional and psychosocial functioning. People with PIU report spending increasing amounts of time surfing the web, using chat rooms, watching pornography, shopping and so on. Frequently, these people develop an obsession with the Internet and an increase in petulance and irritability when they cannot access the Internet or attempt to reduce their use (Meerkerk, et al., 2006). As a result, this can lead to decreased job performance and job loss, financial loss, school failure, family and marital conflict, social isolation and a general decrease in mental and social well-being (Caplan, 2002).

Several studies have identified that overuse of the Internet and it’s associated negative consequences often occur when there is an existing, underlying psychopathology such as substance abuse, depression and other mood disorders (Kraut et al., 1998; Spitzberg, 2006). Although the strength of some of the studies has been affected due to methodological issues (Rierdan, 1999), a correlation between psychological disorders and PIU seems to exist (Davis, 2001). However, few studies have focused on the relationship between PIU and social anxiety.

Social anxiety (SA) is characterized by persistent, recurrent and unreasonably strong fears of social situations where an individual fears being scrutinised by others and subjected to negative evaluation, to the extent that normal and daily functioning is impaired (Liebowitz et al., 2000; Wittchen, 2000). Clark and Wells’s (1995) cognitive-behavioural model of SA is based on the concept that cognitive factors such as irrational thoughts and dysfunctional beliefs play a crucial part in the maintenance and aetiology of the anxiety. For example, people with SA often have negative views of themselves, seeing themselves as unlikable, peculiar/odd, inadequate, different, stupid or unattractive (Roth, 2004). Therefore, socially anxious people will engage in certain behaviours in an attempt to hide these perceived inadequacies from others (Clark & Wells, 1995).

Previous studies have identified that socially anxious people often use the Internet or certain aspects of it such as chat rooms or social networking websites in order to interact with others (Orr et al., 2009). For example, Leary (1983) found that socially anxious people are more likely than those who are non-socially anxious to prefer social interaction via online tools, as they believe they can hide their inadequacies or shortcomings when online.

However, no studies have explored whether socially anxious individuals tend to use the Internet so much that their use becomes problematic, thus experiencing the negative behaviours and outcomes associated with PIU described earlier.

In an effort to understand the relationship between PIU and SA as conceptualized by Clark and Well’s in their cognitive-behavioural model, this study aims to investigate whether people who are socially anxious experience PIU and maladaptive cognitions in relation to their internet use.

The objective is to identify if a) socially anxious people score higher on a PIU scale (consisting of negative behaviours and consequences associated with PIU), than non-socially anxious people, and b) if socially anxious individuals have negative thoughts and maladaptive cognitions in relation to their Internet use, consistent with Clark and Wells’s  (1995) cognitive-behavioural model of SA.

As mentioned previously, several studies have found that the existence of certain psychological issues is often associated with the presence of PIU or experience of negative consequences as the result of Internet overuse (Davis, 2001; Kraut, et al., 1998). Furthermore, Clark and Wells (1995) identified that people with SA often have negative, irrational and/or dysfunctional thoughts. Therefore, the first hypothesis of the current study is that individuals who score higher on a SA scale will also score higher the PIU scale, thus experiencing more negative behaviours and consequences associated with PIU, than people who score lower on the SA scale. The second hypothesis is that people who score higher on the SA scale also score higher on a scale assessing maladaptive, negative thoughts in relation to Internet use, than people who score lower on SA.

Research design

The study is situated within a positivist epistemology (Bryman, 1984) and is guided by Clark and Wells’s (1995) cognitive-behavioural model of social anxiety. The study is quantitative and off cross-sectional design, involving the use of an online survey.

Participant sample

The sample will consist of University of Auckland students. A minimum of 100 respondents will be required, to ensure statistical power for a study which has not been done before. However, it is hoped that the sample will reach several hundred participants. Posters advertising the study will be placed throughout the University of Auckland.

Methods

 A survey will be created electronically on an online surveying tool. The posters advertising the study will contain the unique link of the survey which the participants can access in order to complete the survey online. This method of collecting responses online was preferred as research has shown that study participants are usually more likely to answer honestly if completing an anonymous online questionnaire (Stern, 1999).

The survey will consist of four sections: demographics, SIA scale, PIU scale and maladaptive cognitions scale.

The demographics section will provide some background information about the study sample, and will contain general questions about the participants such as gender, age, ethnicity, employment status and education level.

The second section of the survey will be the Social Interaction Anxiety Scale (SIAS) developed by Mattick and Clarke (1998) which consists of 20 items that assess the participants’ experiences in social situations. The items have a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 0 (Not at all characteristic or true of me) to 4 (Extremely characteristic or true of me), with reversed scoring for question 5, 9 and 11 in order to assess for response validity (Appendix A). The SIAS has been used in several different studies and was found to have a high reliability and validity (Shepherd & Edelmann, 2005). Furthermore, the SIAS was developed in accordance with Clark and Wells’s model, in that SA has both a cognitive and behavioural aspect to it

It was decided to include a scale to assess SA as part of the survey and administer the survey to the general student body of University of Auckland, rather than trying to recruit participants who have SA. The reason for this is that many people may not be aware that they have SA as they may have never been diagnosed by a mental health professional  (Kessler et al., 1994). It is important to note that the SIAS can be used to investigate SA scores along a continuum, with low scores denoting the absence of SA symptoms, and high scores denoting the presence of SA (Shepherd & Edelmann, 2005).

The third and fourth sections of the survey, the PIU scale and maladaptive cognitions scale respectively, will be adapted from Caplan’s (2002) Generalized PIU scale. Caplan’s scale consists of 29 items assessing behaviours, negative outcomes and cognitions associated with PIU. Although the scale was found to have a high reliability and internal consistency (Caplan, 2002), for the purpose of this study, the items of the scale will be divided into two different scales: the PIU scale of section three, assessing participants’ behaviours and negative consequences (17 items) and the maladaptive cognitions scale of section four, assessing participants’ negative thoughts in relation to Internet use (12 items) (Appendix B & C). The reason for dividing Caplan’s Generalized PIU scale is so that the two resulting separate scales can correspond with Clark and Well’s (1995) model of SA, which states that behaviours and maladaptive cognitions both play a role in the aetiology and maintenance of the anxiety. As a result, it will be easier to achieve the aim of the study to investigate whether people who are socially anxious experience PIU behaviours and consequences as well as maladaptive cognitions in relation to their internet use.

Furthermore, the PIU scale of section 3 will include several items which are in accordance with other studies which have identified that people who overuse the Internet have difficulties reducing their use and experience social isolation or decreased job or school performance (Caplan, 2002).

The online survey will be set up in such a way as to first show a participant information section, providing background information regarding PIU and SA and a brief outline of the proposed study. It will also be highlighted that anonymity of the participant will be guaranteed. If the participants click to go to the next page of the survey, that will considered an indication of consent to take part in the study. The survey will take approximately 10-15 minutes to complete.

Data analysis

The data collected will be analyzed with Predictive Analytics SoftWare (PASW) statistical software. Descriptive statistics about the sample will be generated based on the results from the first, demographics section of the survey. The internal consistencies of all three scales used in the survey will be evaluated, and Nunnaly’s (1978) guidelines will be followed, in that a Cronbach’s alpha value of at least 0.7 is an acceptable reliability coefficient. Correlation analyses will be used to explore the relationship between the scores on the 3 scales.

Ethical concerns

Ethics approval will be sought from the University of Auckland Human Participants Ethics Committee.

The main ethical issue is that the topics of the study could be causing some distress to the participant. Participants may experience emotional and psychological discomfort, for example due to reasons such as guilt that they may feel over their Internet use (Beard, 2005). It is impossible for the researcher to know whether this will occur, so a list with contacts to support services (e.g. University of Auckland counselling services) will be listed at the bottom of each page of the survey. Participants will also have the right to withdraw from the study at any time: closing the survey window before completion will signal withdrawal from participation.

As mentioned previously, the survey will first show a participant information section, containing a brief outline of the proposed study, so no deception is involved. The participants will not be asked to provide any personal information when completing the survey, thus for all intents and purposes, the researcher cannot identify them. Because the participants’ anonymity is guaranteed, confidentiality is not an issue as there is no way of identifying which survey answers belong to which participant.

Anticipated outcomes and practical/theoretical implications

The study is indented to improve understanding on PIU and SA as conceptualized by Clark and Wells’s in their cognitive-behavioural model by exploring if socially anxious people experience the negative behaviours, consequences and maladaptive thoughts associated with PIU identified by other studies (Caplan, 2002; Meerkerk, et al., 2006). In line with previous studies which have found a link between PIU and psychological disorders (Davis, 2001), it is anticipated that people who score higher on the SA scale will also score higher on the PIU scale and maladaptive cognitions scale.

Furthermore, the findings of the study will add to a body of knowledge about PIU, by providing data on the issue of PIU in a New Zealand context, which is currently not available.

For people with PIU who are socially anxious, negative behaviours, consequences and maladaptive thoughts in relation to PIU may be responsible for the maintenance of the anxiety, in accordance with Clark and Wells’s model of SA, that certain behaviours and cognitions may cause and perpetuate the anxiety. While only a longitudinal study would be able to assert whether PIU causes and perpetuates SA, or vice-versa, this study will identify if there is an existing relationship between the two.

This study will be one of the few which have focused on the relationship between PIU and social anxiety, and the first to link PIU to Clark and Wells’s model. It is hoped that findings from this study may give rise to further research carried on this topic, which ultimately may help and treat or support people with PIU which are socially anxious.

References

Beard, K. (2005). Internet Addiction: A Review of Current Assessment Techniques and Potential Assessment Questions. Cyber Psychology & Behavior, 8(1), 7-15.

Bryman, A. (1984). The Debate about Quantitative and Qualitative Research: A Question of Method or Epistemology? The British Journal of Sociology, 35(1), 75-92.

Caplan, S. E. (2002). Problematic Internet use and psychosocial well-being: development of a theory based cognitive-behavioral measurement instrument. Computers in Human Behavior, 18(5), 553-575.

Clark, D. M., & Wells, A. (1995). A Cognitive Model of Social Phobia. In R. G. Heimberg, M. R. Liebowitz, D. A. Hope & F. R. Schneier (Eds.), Social phobia: diagnosis, assessment, and treatment. New York: Guilford Publications.

Davis, R. A. (2001). A cognitive-behavioral model of pathological Internet use. Computers in Human Behavior, 17, 187-195.

Kessler, R. C., McGonagle, K. A., Zhao, S., Nelson, C. B., Hughes, M., Eshleman, S., et al. (1994). Lifetime and 12-month prevalence of DSM-III-R psychiatric disorders in the United States: results from the National Comorbidity Survey. Archives of General Psychiatry, 51, 8-19.

Kraut, R., Patterson, M., Lundmark, V., Kiesler, S., Mukopadhyay, T., & Scherlis, W. (1998). Internet paradox: a social technology that reduces social involvement and psychological well being? American Psychologist, 53(9), 1017-1031.

Leary, M. L. (1983). Understanding social anxiety: social, personality, and clinical perspective. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

Liebowitz, M. R., Heimberg, R. G., Fresco, D. M., Stein, M. B., Travers, L., Coles, M. E., et al. (2000). Social phobia or social anxiety disorder: What's in a name? Archives of General Psychiatry, 57, 191-192.

Mattick, R., & Clarke, C. (1998). Development and Validation of Measure of Social Phobia Scrutiny Fear and Social Interaction Anxiety. Behaviour Research and Therapy 36, 455–470.

Meerkerk, G., Van Den Eijnden, R. J., & Garretsen, H. F. (2006). Predicting compulsive Internet use: it's all about sex! Cyberpsychology & behavior : the impact of the Internet, multimedia and virtual reality on behavior and society, 9(1), 95-103.

Nunnaly, J. (1978). Psychometric theory. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Orr, E. S., Sisic, M., Ross, C., Simmering, M. G., Arseneault, J. M., & Orr, R. R. (2009). The influence of shyness on the use of Facebook in an undergraduate sample. Cyberpsychology & behavior : the impact of the Internet, multimedia and virtual reality on behavior and society, 12(3), 337-340.

Rierdan, J. (1999). Internet-depression link? American Psychologist, 54(9), 781-782.

Roth, D. A. (2004). Cognitive Theories of Social Phobia. In B. Bandelow & D. J. Stein (Eds.), Social Anxiety Disorder. New York: Marcel Dekker Inc.

Shepherd, R. M., & Edelmann, E. J. (2005). Reasons for internet use and social anxiety. Personality and individual differences, 39, 949-958.

Spitzberg, B. H. (2006). Preliminary Development of a Model and Measure of Computer-Mediated Communication (CMC) Competence. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 11(2), 629-666.

Stern, S. E. (1999). Addiction to technologies: a social psychological perspective of Internet addiction. CyberPsychology & Behaviour, 2(5), 419-424.

Wittchen, H. U. (2000). The many faces of social anxiety disorder. International Clinical Psychopharmacology, 15(Suppl 1), S7-S12.

Appendix A: Social Anxiety scale

Appendix B: PIU scale – behaviours and consequences

Appendix C: Maladaptive cognitions scale