AWA: Academic Writing at Auckland

Perfectionism is a double-edged sword. It impels those who possess it to achieve increasing levels of success, but may also lead to dissatisfaction and even underachievement. It is an aspect of my character that shapes my approach to my studies and work, and one that can be explained using psychoanalytic and behavioural theories.

In everyday usage, the characteristic of perfectionism is defined as the ‘uncompromising pursuit of excellence’ (Deverson, 1997, p. 773). However, Hollender (1965) makes it clear that perfectionism is not simply about achieving, but about overachieving. Psychological descriptions of perfectionism also emphasise desire for order, fear of making errors and a tendency to be over-critical of one’s own work (Frost, Marten, Lahart & Rosenblate, 1990). From these definitions, and from observations of others and myself, I have inferred that perfectionism entails setting excessively high goals and striving towards them, whilst doubting one’s ability to achieve them.

Three aspects of psychoanalytic theory can be used to explain perfectionism: defence mechanisms, fixation, and superego dominance. People using the Freudian defence mechanism of reaction formation express the opposite of the unacceptable feeling they fear. So, the overachievement shown by perfectionists could be a reaction to their fear of failure, or indeed to a belief that they are a failure. Alternatively, perfectionism could seen as an unconscious defence against a repressed childhood failing.

Freud identified three personality types based on his psychosexual stages of development, one of which is known as the anal type. Like many perfectionists, people with anal personalities are unnecessarily moralistic, have overly ordered thoughts and behaviours and desire power and control. These traits are thought to be the result of fixation at the anal stage of development, which occurs around the age of two with the advent of toilet training.  Given the clear overlap between characteristics of perfectionists and anal personalities, it seems reasonable to suggest that psychoanalytic theory might also explain perfectionism in terms anal fixation.

As stated by Frost et al. (1990), perfectionists are often moralistic, set unreachable goals and feel guilty when they believe they have failed. These characteristics are closely aligned with the characteristics of the superego, Freud’s functional system concerned with morality and guilt, and which lacks the capacity for reality testing. Psychoanalytic theory could explain perfectionism being the result of the superego dominating and the ego’s ability to set reasonable goals and moderate guilt.

Behaviourism suggests that human character is shaped by the reinforcement and punishment of behaviours; hence perfectionism can be explained as stemming from positively reinforcing success and punishing failure. A child who receives a high mark in a school exam is likely to be praised by their teachers and parents, examples of positive reinforcement. This reinforcement makes the child more likely to succeed in future exams and other academic endeavours. At the same time, as parents and other influential figures in the child’s life become accustomed to the child’s success, the child has to do increasingly well to gain the same level of reinforcement. This creates perfectionistic behaviours in which the individual continuously strives for greater success and associated rewards. Intermittent reinforcement of success could cause an individual to continue to strive for unattainable goals even when they are not rewarded for this perfectionist behaviour.

Punishment is also relevant to this behavioural explanation. If a child fails a school exam, they will likely face parental punishment, causing the child to fear failure and avoid failing the next exam. Punishment could work in isolation, creating perfectionism geared at failure avoidance, or alongside reinforcement to increase both success motivated and failure avoidant perfectionism. As Frost et al. (1990) have pointed out, parental expectations can continue to influence an adult’s perfectionist character, and reinforcement and punishment later in life (for example by employers) could further shape the perfectionist aspects of a person’s character. Slade and Owens (1998) have developed a dual-process model of perfectionism that closely resembles this behavioural explanation, but which does not take into account the suggestion that punishment could work alongside reinforcement to explain normal perfectionism.

At first glance, perfectionism is a positive characteristic, and indeed it can be advantageous. In fields that demand a high degree of accuracy, such as the sciences, having a strong perfectionist character could drive an individual to complete exceptional research. Indeed, in nearly any occupation, some level of perfectionism would be advantageous in producing excellent work. However, when this work must be completed rapidly, the perfectionist’s obsessive attention to detail could hamper their ability to meet deadlines. Procrastination due to fear of failing to complete work perfectly could also damage productivity.

Perfectionism can also be advantageous for performing artists, like myself. Musicians who set exceptionally high goals may not achieve them, but their intense practice and research may lead them to reach what would be externally evaluated as a high standard nonetheless. This may give them an edge over other less perfectionist musicians, for example when auditioning for a competitive orchestral position which requires impeccable technique.

However, perfectionism can be a disadvantage to performers. Many musicians suffer from performance anxiety, the effects of which can hamper performance ability. Perfectionism, and in particular fear of failing, seems to contribute to performance anxiety, as shown in a recent study of opera singers (Kenny, Davis, & Oates, 2004).  It is clear that some degree of perfectionism is beneficial to work quality, but excessive perfectionism can lead to failure to perform satisfactorily. Perfectionism can also negatively influence mental and physical health. For example, intense body image related perfectionism is a risk factor for the development of eating disorders (Bulik et al., 2003).

Perfectionism is only one aspect of an individual’s personality, but it can have major effects on their success in their chosen field.  Behaviourism and psychoanalytic theory help me to understand perfectionism; hopefully this understanding will allow me to maximise the benefits of this aspect of my personality and minimise the disadvantages.

References

Bulik, C., Tozzi, F., Anderson, C., Mazzeo, S., Aggen, S., & Sullivan, P. (2003) The relation between eating disorders and components of perfectionism. American Journal of Psychiatry, 160(2), 366-368.

Deverson, T. (1997). The New Zealand Pocket Oxford Dictionary  (2^nd ed.). Auckland, New Zealand: Oxford University Press.

Frost, R., Marten, P., Lahart, C., & Rosenblate, R. (1990). The dimensions of perfectionism. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 14(5), 449-468. doi: 10.1007/BF01172967

Hollender, M. (1965). Perfectionism. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 6(2), 94-103. doi:10.1016/S0010-440X(65)80016-5

Kenny, D., Davis, P., & Oates, J. (2004). Music performance anxiety and occupational stress amongst opera chorus artists and their relationship with state and trait anxiety and perfectionism. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 18(6), 757-777. doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2003.09.004 

Slade, P., & Owens, R. (1998). A dual process model of perfectionism based on reinforcement theory. Behaviour Modification, 22(3), 372-390. doi:10.1177/01454455980223010